CHAPTER 1 Educational Psychology： A Foundation for Teaching 1
CHAPTER 2 Cognitive, Language, and Literacy Development 28
CHAPTER 3 Social, Moral, and Emotional Development 52
CHAPTER 4 Student Diversity 78
CHAPTER 5 Behavioral Theories of Learning 114
CHAPTER 6 Information Processing and Cognitive Theories of Learning 142
CHAPTER 7 The Effective Lesson 182
CHAPTER 8 Student-Centered and Constructivist Approaches to Instruction 216
CHAPTER 9 Grouping, Differentiation, and Technology 248
CHAPTER 10 Motivating Students to Learn 284
CHAPTER 11 Effective Learning Environments 314
CHAPTER 12 Learners with Exceptionalities 352
CHAPTER 13 Assessing Student Learning 396
CHAPTER 14 Standardized Tests and Accountability 446
Appendix Using This Text to Prepare for the Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching Exam 482
References 497
內容試閱：
When I first set out to write Educational Psychology： Theory and Practice, I had a very clear purpose in mind. I wanted to give tomorrows teachers the intellectual grounding and practical strategies they will need to be effective instructors. Most of the textbooks published then, I felt, fell into one of two categories： stuffy or lightweight. The stuffy books were full of research but were ponderously written, losing the flavor of the classroom and containing few guides to practice. The lightweight texts were breezy and easy to read but lacked the dilemmas and intellectual issues brought out by research. They contained suggestions of the Try this! variety, without considering evidence about the effectiveness of those strategies.
My objective was to write a text that
Presents information that is as complete and up to date as the most research-focused texts but is also readable, practical, and filled with examples and illustrations of key ideas.
Includes suggestions for practice based directly on classroom research tempered by common sense so I can have confidence that when you try what I suggest, it will be likely to work.
Helps you transfer what you learn in educational psychology to your own teaching by making explicit the connection between theory and practice through numerous realistic examples. Even though I have been doing educational research since the mid-1970s, I find that I never really understand theories or concepts in education until someone gives me a compelling classroom example; and I believe that most of my colleagues and certainly teacher education students feel the same way. As a result, the word example or similar words appear hundreds of times in this text.
Appeals to readers; therefore, I have tried to write in such a way that you will almost hear students voices and smell the lunch cooking in the school cafeteria as you read.
These have been my objectives for the book from the first edition to this, the tenth edition. With every edition, I have made changes throughout the text, adding new examples, refining language, and deleting dated or unessential material. I am meticulous about keeping the text up to date, so this edition has more than 2,000 reference citations, 55 percent of which are from 2000 or later. The tenth edition is updated with more than 656 new references. Although some readers may not care much about citations, I want you and your professors to know what research supports the statements Ive made and where to find additional information.
The field of educational psychology and the practice of education have changed a great deal in recent years, and I have tried to reflect these changes in this edition. Several years ago, direct instruction and related teacher effectiveness research were dominant in educational psychology. Then constructivist methods, portfolio and performance assessments, and other humanistic strategies returned. Now, the emphasis is on accountability, which requires teachers more than ever to plan outcomes and teach purposefully, qualities that I emphasize in this edition as intentional teaching. In the earliest editions of this text, I said that we shouldnt entirely discard discovery learning and humanistic methods despite the popularity, then, of direct instruction. In the next editions, I made just the opposite plea： that we shouldnt completely discard direct instruction despite the popularity of active, student-centered teaching and constructivist methods of instruction. I continue to advocate a balanced approach to instruction. No matter what their philosophical orientations, experienced teachers know that they must be proficient in a wide range of methods and must use them thoughtfully.
The tenth edition presents new research and practical applications of many topics. Throughout, this edition reflects the cognitive revolution that has transformed educational psychology and teaching. The accompanying figure presents a concept map of the books organization.
Given the developments in education in recent years, particularly with the introduction of the No Child Left Behind legislation in 2001 and the focus on standards and accountability that continues in the Obama administration, no one can deny that teachers matter or that teachers behaviors have a profound impact on student achievement. To make that impact positive, teachers must have both a deep understanding of the powerful principles of psychology as they apply to education and a clear sense of how these principles can be applied. The intentional teacher is one who constantly reflects on his or her practices and makes instructional decisions based on a clear conception of how these practices affect students. Effective teaching is neither a bag of tricks nor a set of abstract principles; rather, it is intelligent application of well-understood principles to address practical needs. I hope this edition will help you develop the intellectual and practical skills you need to do the most important job in the worldteaching.
New and Expanded Coverage
Among the many topics that receive new or expanded coverage in this edition are：
21st century skills Chapter 1 and 21st Century Learning features throughout the text
Language and literacy development in the elementary years Chapter 2
New research on bilingual education Chapter 4
Emerging research in neuroscience Chapter 6
Expanded coverage on study strategies Chapter 6
The latest research on cooperative learning Chapter 8
New research on tutoring and small group remediation for struggling readers Chapter 9
More on differentiated instruction Chapter 9
New coverage of technology applications Chapter 9
New sections on bullying and classroom management Chapter 11
Expanded coverage of Response to Intervention Chapter 12
Expanded coverage of IEPs Chapter 12
Expanded coverage of autism spectrum disorder Chapter 12
Additional coverage of value-added assessments Chapter 14
New information on testing accommodations for English learners Chapter 14
New Appendix that correlates the content of each chapter to corresponding topics within the Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests
656 new and updated references, 55 percent of which are from 2000 or later
What Makes a Good Teacher? What makes a good teacher? Is it warmth, humor, and the ability to care about people? Is it planning, hard work, and self-discipline? What about leadership, enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and speaking ability? Most people would agree that all of these qualities are needed to make a good teacher, and they would certainly be correct see Wayne & Youngs, 2003. But these qualities are not enough.
■ Knowing the Subject Matters But So Does Teaching Skill
There is an old joke that goes like this：
Question： What do you need to know to be able to teach a horse? Answer： More than the horse!
This joke makes the obvious point that the first thing a teacher must have is some knowledge or skills that the learner does not have; you must know the subject matter you plan to teach. But if you think about teaching horses or children, you will soon realize that although subject matter knowledge is necessary, it is not enough. A rancher may have a good idea of how a horse is supposed to act and what a horse is supposed to be able to do, but if he doesnt have the skills to make an untrained, scared, and unfriendly animal into a good saddle horse, hes going to end up with nothing but broken ribs and teeth marks for his trouble. Children are a lot smarter and a little more forgiving than horses, but teaching them has this in common with teaching horses： Knowledge of how to transmit information and skills is at least as important as knowledge of the information and skills themselves. We have all had teachers most often college professors, unfortunately who were brilliant and thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields but who could not teach. Ellen Mathis may know as much as Leah Washington about what good writing should be, but she has a lot to learn about how to get thirdgraders to write well.
For effective teaching, subject matter knowledge is not a question of being a walking encyclopedia. Vast knowledge is readily available. However, effective teachers not only know their subjects but also can communicate their knowledge to students. The celebrated high school math teacher Jaime Escalante taught the concept of positive and negative numbers to students in a Los Angeles barrio by explaining that when you dig a hole, you might call the pile of dirt1, the hole 1. What do you get when you put the dirt back in the hole? Zero. Escalantes ability to relate the abstract concept of positive and negative numbers to everyday experience is one example of how the ability to communicate knowledge goes far beyond simply knowing the facts.
■ Mastering Teaching Skills
The link between what a teacher wants students to learn and students actual learning is called instruction, or pedagogy. Effective instruction is not a simple matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting that knowledge to another. If telling were teaching, this book would be unnecessary. Rather, effective instruction demands the use of many strategies.
For example, suppose Paula Ray wants to teach a lesson on statistics to a diverse class of fourth-graders. To do so, Paula must accomplish many related tasks. She must make sure that the class is orderly and that students know what behavior is expected of them. She must find out whether students have the prerequisite skills; for example, students need to be able to add and divide to find averages. If any do not, Paula must find a way to teach students those skills. She must engage students in activities that lead them toward an understanding of statistics, such as having students roll dice, play cards, or collect data from experiments; and she must use teaching strategies that help students remember what they have been taught. The lessons should also take into account the intellectual and social characteristics of students in the fourth grade and the intellectual, social, and cultural characteristics of these particular students. Paula must make sure that students are interested in the lesson and motivated to learn statistics. To see whether students are learning what is being taught, she may ask questions or use quizzes or have students demonstrate their understanding by setting up and interpreting experiments, and she must respond appropriately if these assessments show that students are having problems. After the series of lessons on statistics ends, Paula should review this topic from time to time to ensure that it is remembered.
These tasksmotivating students, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes, and reviewing informationmust be attended to at all levels of education, in or out of schools. They apply as much to the training of astronauts as to the teaching of reading. How these tasks are accomplished, however, differs widely according to the ages of the students, the objectives of instruction, and other factors.
What makes a good teacher is the ability to carry out all the tasks involved in effective instruction Burden & Byrd, 2003; Kennedy, 2006. Warmth, enthusiasm, and caring are essential Cornelius-White, 2007; Eisner, 2006, as is subject matter knowledge and understanding of how children learn Wiggins & McTighe, 2006. But it is the successful accomplishment of all the tasks of teaching that makes for instructional effectiveness Shulman, 2000.
■ Can Good Teaching Be Taught?
Some people think that good teachers are born that way. Outstanding teachers sometimes seem to have a magic, a charisma that mere mortals could never hope to achieve. Yet research has begun to identify the specific behaviors and skills that make a magic teacher Borman & Kimball, 2005. An outstanding teacher does nothing that any other teacher cannot also doit is just a question of knowing the principles of effective teaching and how to apply them. Take one small example： In a high school history class, two students in the back of the class are whispering to each other, and they are not discussing the Treaty of Paris! The teacher slowly walks toward them without looking, continuing his lesson as he walks. The students stop whispering and pay attention. If you didnt know what to look for, you might miss this brief but critical interchange and believe that the teacher just has a way with students, a knack for keeping their attention. But the teacher is simply applying principles of classroom management that anyone could learn： Maintain momentum in the lesson, deal with behavior problems by using the mildest intervention that will work, and resolve minor problems before they become major ones. When Jaime Escalante gave the example of digging a hole to illustrate the concept of positive and negative numbers, he was also applying several important principles of educational psychology： Make abstract ideas concrete by using many examples, relate the content of instruction to the students background, state rules, give examples, and then restate rules.
Can good teaching be taught? The answer is definitely yes. Good teaching has to be observed and practiced, but there are principles of good teaching that teachers need to know, which can then be applied in the classroom. The major components of effective instruction are summarized in Figure 1.1.
■ The Intentional Teacher
There is no formula for good teaching, no seven steps to Teacher of the Year. Teaching involves planning and preparation, and then dozens of decisions every hour. Yet one attribute seems to be characteristic of outstanding teachers： intentionality. Intentionality means doing things for a reason, on purpose. Intentional teachers will constantly think about the outcomes they want for their students and about how each decision they make moves children toward those outcomes. Intentional teachers know that maximum learning does not happen by chance. Yes, children do learn in unplanned ways all the time, and many will learn from even the most chaotic lesson. But to really challenge students, to get their best efforts, to help them make conceptual leaps and organize and retain new knowledge, teachers need to be purposeful, thoughtful, and flexible, without ever losing sight of their goals for every child. In a word, they need to be intentional.
The idea that teachers should always do things for a reason seems obvious, and in principle it is. Yet in practice, it is difficult to constantly make certain that all students are engaged in activities that lead to important learning outcomes Kennedy, 2008. Teachers very frequently fall into strategies that they themselves would recognize, on reflection, as being time fillers rather than instructionally essential activities. For example, an otherwise outstanding third-grade teacher once assigned seatwork to one of her reading groups. The children were given two sheets of paper with words in squares. Their task was to cut out the squares on one sheet and then paste them onto synonyms on the other. When all the words were pasted correctly, lines on the pasted squares would form an outline of a cat, which the children were then to color. Once the children pasted a few squares, the puzzle became clear, so they could paste the remainder without paying any attention to the words themselves. For almost an hour of precious class time, these children happily cut, pasted, and colorednot highpriority skills for third-graders. The teacher would have said that the objective was for children to learn or practice synonyms, of course; but in fact the activity could not possibly have moved the children forward on that skill. Similarly, many teachers have one child laboriously work a problem on the chalkboard while the rest of the class has nothing important to do. Many secondary teachers spend most of the class period going over homework and classwork and end up doing very little teaching of new content. Again, these may be excellent teachers in other ways, but they sometimes lose sight of what they are trying to achieve and how they are going to achieve it.
Intentional teachers are constantly asking themselves what goals they and their students are trying to accomplish. Is each portion of their lesson appropriate to students background knowledge, skills, and needs? Is each activity or assignment clearly related to a valued outcome? Is each instructional minute used wisely and well? An intentional teacher trying to build students synonym skills during follow-up time might have them work in pairs to master a set of synonyms in preparation for individual quizzes. An intentional teacher might have all children work a given problem while one works at the board, so that all can compare answers and strategies together. An intentional teacher might quickly give homework answers for students to check themselves, ask for a show of hands for correct answers, and then review and reteach only those exercises missed by many students to save time for teaching of new content. An intentional teacher uses a wide variety of instructional methods, experiences, assignments, and materials to be sure that children are achieving all sorts of cognitive objectives, from knowledge to application to creativity, and that at the same time children are learning important affective objectives, such as love of learning, respect for others, and personal responsibility. An intentional teacher constantly reflects on his or her practices and outcomes.
Research finds that one of the most powerful predictors of a teachers impact on students is the belief that what he or she does makes a difference. This belief, called teacher efficacy Henson, 2002; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001, is at the heart of what it means to be an intentional teacher. Teachers who believe that success in school is almost entirely due to childrens inborn intelligence, home environment, or other factors that teachers cannot influence are unlikely to teach in the same way as those who believe that their own efforts are the key to childrens learning. An intentional teacher, one who has a strong belief in her or his efficacy, is more likely to put forth consistent effort, to persist in the face of obstacles, and to keep trying relentlessly until every student succeeds Bandura, 1997. Intentional teachers achieve a sense of efficacy by constantly assessing the results of their instruction Schmoker, 1999; trying new strategies if their initial instruction doesnt work; and continually seeking ideas from colleagues, books, magazines, workshops, and other sources to enrich and solidify their teaching skills Corbett, Wilson, & Williams, 2005. Collective efficacy can have a particularly strong impact on student achievement Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000. Groups of teachers, such as the entire faculty of an elementary school or all teachers in a given academic department, can attain collective efficacy by working together to examine their practices and outcomes, seeking professional development, and helping each other succeed see Borko, 2004; Sachs, 2000; York-Barr, Sommerness, & Hur, 2008.
The most important purpose of this book is to give you, tomorrows teacher, the intellectual grounding in research, theory, and practical wisdom you will need in order to become an intentional, effective teacher. To plan and carry out effective lessons, discussions, projects, and other learning experiences, teachers need to know a great deal. Besides knowing your subjects, you need to understand the developmental levels and needs of your students. You need to understand how learning, memory, problem-solving skill, and creativity are acquired and how to promote their acquisition. You need to know how to set objectives, organize activities designed to help students attain those objectives, and assess students progress toward them. You need to know how to motivate children, how to use class time effectively, and how to respond to individual differences among students. Intentional teachers are continually experimenting with strategies to solve problems of instruction and then observing the results of their actions to see if they were effective Duck, 2000. They pay attention to research on effective teaching and incorporate research findings in their daily teaching Fleischman, 2006. Like Leah Washington in the vignette that opened this chapter, intentional teachers are constantly combining their knowledge of principles of educational psychology, their experience, and their creativity to make instructional decisions and help children become enthusiastic and effective learners.
This text highlights the ideas that are central to educational psychology and the related research. It also presents many examples of how these ideas apply in practice, emphasizing teaching practices, not only theory or suggestions, that have been evaluated and found to be effective. The text is designed to help you develop critical-thinking skills for teaching： a logical and systematic approach to the many dilemmas that are found in practice and research. No text can provide all the right answers for teaching, but this one tries to pose the right questions and to engage you by presenting realistic alternatives and the concepts and research behind them.
Many studies have looked at the differences between expert and novice teachers and between more and less effective teachers. One theme comes through these studies： Expert teachers are critical thinkers Hogan, Rabinowitz, & Craven, 2003; Mosenthal, Lipson, Torncello, Russ, & Mekkelsen, 2004; Shulman, 2000. Intentional teachers are constantly upgrading and examining their own teaching practices, reading and attending conferences to learn new ideas, and using their own students responses to guide their instructional decisions. Theres an old saying to the effect that there are teachers with 20 years of experience and there are teachers with 1 year of experience 20 times. Teachers who get better each year are the ones who are open to new ideas and who look at their own teaching critically. Perhaps the most important goal of this book is to get you in the habit of using informed reflection to become one of tomorrows expert teachers.
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